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Published in 2011 by Britannica Educational Publishing (a trademark of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.) in association with Rosen Educational Services, LLC 29 East 21st Street, New York, NY 10010. Copyright © 2011 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, and the Thistle logo are registered trademarks of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. All rights reserved. Rosen Educational Services materials copyright © 2011 Rosen Educational Services, LLC. All rights reserved. Distributed exclusively by Rosen Educational Services. For a listing of additional Britannica Educational Publishing titles, call toll free (800) 237-9932. First Edition Britannica Educational Publishing Michael I. Levy: Executive Editor J.E. Luebering: Senior Manager Marilyn L. Barton: Senior Coordinator, Production Control Steven Bosco: Director, Editorial Technologies Lisa S. Braucher: Senior Producer and Data Editor Yvette Charboneau: Senior Copy Editor Kathy Nakamura: Manager, Media Acquisition Erik Gregersen: Associate Editor, Astronomy and Space Exploration Rosen Educational Services Hope Lourie Killcoyne: Senior Editor and Project Manager Bethany Bryan: Editor Nelson Sá: Art Director Cindy Reiman: Photography Manager Matthew Cauli: Designer, Cover Design Introduction by John Strazzabosco Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data The Britannica guide to the history of mathematics / edited by Erik Gregersen.—1st ed. p. cm.—(Math explained) “In association with Britannica Educational Publishing, Rosen Educational Services.” Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-61530-221-5 (eBook) 1. Mathematics—History. I. Gregersen, Erik. II. Title: History of mathematics. QA21.B84 2011 510.9—dc22 2010008356 On the cover: Hands with abacus, an old-fashioned counting device. Jed Share/Photodisc/ Getty Images On page 12: Illustrating Pythagoras’s theorem, this diagram comes from a mid-19th-century edition of the Elements of Euclid, a seminal multi-book series...